Tag: Blogging

There Are Scientific Facts

Super fact 62 : Facts exist in science; a scientific “fact” is an observation of a natural phenomenon that has been repeatedly confirmed by independent observers and is accepted as true for all practical purposes.

Outside of mathematics and logic nothing is ever the final truth, not in science, and not anywhere else. However, there are facts that have been so well confirmed and are so basic that there is no reason to doubt them. Earth is not flat like a pancake, and the sun is a star, are two examples of astronomical facts. Most dogs have four legs is another fact. The speed of light in vacuum is the same for all observers is a fact in physics that is surprising if you didn’t know it before. Scientific facts are verified by repeatable careful observation or measurement by experiments or other means. It is possible that we are all living in a virtual reality, like in the movie The Matrix, and that Earth is really flat like a pancake after all, because all of reality is a dream. However, for all practical purposes, it is not the case.

This blog, super facts, deal with facts that are surprising, strange, or disputed by non-experts, and yet true because they have been verified, for example, in the case of scientific facts, by repeatable careful observation. Anyone is free to object if you think I am wrong about a fact.

My next super fact is going to be “Evolution is a fact”. Evolution is also a scientific theory, but it means something different from when you say evolution is a fact. Moreover, a Scientific Theory is not a guess, as commonly but incorrectly assumed. I am bringing this up because many people who are typically unaware of the evidence behind a fact will use arguments such as “science does not know everything”, “it is just a theory”, etc., in efforts to dismiss a well-supported claim.

I should say that this post is inspired by a Facebook post by “The Credible Hulk”, a Facebook page managed by a group of anonymous scientists opposing misinformation around vaccines, global warming, evolution and GMOs. I did not save the post, but it went something like this:

One of the commentors said : “Calling evolution a “fact” defeats your argument. The Theory of Evolution is by definition a theory not a fact. It’s the currently agreed upon hypothesis but not a fact”

What the commentor did not realize is that “Theory” in the context of science does not mean what he thought it did. I am using past tense because he got “schooled”. To his credit he did not respond with insults and neither did the Credible Hulk, which does not seem to be standard on Facebook. However, his comment illustrates something that drives scientists like those who created “The Credible Hulk” nuts, and that is the widespread lack of understanding of the difference between a guess, a hypothesis, a scientific fact, theory as used in common language and used when talking about a scientific theory.

Rather than having this discussion over at my upcoming “Evolution is a fact” post, I am making a separate post about it. I consider “There are Scientific Facts” a super fact because it is true, and yet the confusion around it and what a Scientific Theory pertains is massive, and it is an important topic.

What is Science?

Science is the process of learning about the world through systematic observation and experimentation to gain knowledge about how things work. It involves observing phenomena, forming testable ideas (hypotheses), systematic studies, conducting experiments, and collecting evidence and facts that support or refute those ideas, ultimately leading to a deeper understanding of general truths and natural laws. If an idea/hypothesis correctly predicts and explains facts, it becomes a theory, which is something that is very different from a guess.

The process of making observations, formulating testable hypotheses, conducting experiments, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions to understand phenomena and solve problems is referred to as the scientific method, and there are different types of scientific methods. Some involve experiments, other involve analysis historical artifacts or existing data. Objectivity, reproducibility, falsifiability, and predictive power or problem solving are essential.

Banner research vector illustration concept with keywords and icons for Analysis, Data, Survey, Development, Fact, Knowledge, and Data Entry
Aspects of scientific research include analysis, data collection, sometimes surveys, development, establishing facts, creating knowledge, and data entry so that others can repeat it and verify results. Shutterstock Asset id: 1100776715 by Trueffelpix

What is a Scientific Theory?

When people hear the phrase “evolution is a theory,” many mistakenly assume it means evolution is just a guess or speculation. In science, however, a theory is far more than a guess. A scientific theory is an explanation of an aspect of the natural world that can be or that has been repeatedly tested and has corroborating evidence in accordance with the scientific method, using accepted protocols of observation, measurement, and evaluation of results. In other words, it is a well-tested, comprehensive explanation of natural phenomena, supported by an extensive body of evidence.

3D Isometric Flat Vector Conceptual Illustration of Scientific Method and Knowledge Acquiring. Icons organized in a circle, observation, question, hypothesis, experiment, conclusion, and result | There Are Scientific Facts
Conceptual Illustration of Scientific Method and Knowledge Acquiring. Notice, not all scientific methods necessarily include experiments. Some include surveys, or testing of ancient artifacts, etc. Shutterstock Asset id: 2139402875 by TarikVision

The evidence for evolution is both vast and compelling. It is not just the massive fossil record, it is in DNA, anatomy, there’s geographic evidence, and evidence from dozens of other scientific fields, not to mention that evolution is directly observable. There is a Theory of Evolution, that is the well supported explanation for evolution, or evolution by natural selection. There is also “Evolution is a fact” referring to, for example, the fact that we can directly observe it. It is true for all practical purposes, and that does not mean that evolution stops being a scientific theory as well as a fact.

Afterword

Even though science is constantly evolving and our knowledge is evolving and sometimes our understanding and scientific theories on a topic needs to be updated, scientific facts exist. Some scientific facts are extremely unlikely to change. For example, Jupiter has multiple moons, galaxies exist, global warming is real and is caused by us, and evolution is a fact. Before you decide to dismiss such a fact make sure you know what “theory” means in science, and most importantly educate yourself on the relevant evidence. There might be a whole lot more than you imagined, and you may discover that the evidence you thought was contrary is not evidence.

You often hear “science does not know everything”. That’s true. If science knew everything it would stop. However, the collective knowledge created by science is enormous and as individuals we know next to nothing. So be humble and learn from scientific evidence presented by reliable sources.

To see the other Super Facts click here

Superfluid Liquids are Like Magic

Super fact 60 : Superfluids such as liquid Helium cooled below -455.58 Fahrenheit exhibit some very strange characteristics such as it flows right through many solids, it climbs walls, it has near zero viscosity, it exhibits circulating flows that never stop despite no energy being added. It is a Macroscopic Quantum Phenomenon.

When gases are cooled far enough, they will turn into liquids and eventually typically to solids. For example, Oxygen becomes a liquid when its temperature drops to -297 Fahrenheit, which is -183 Celsius, or 90 degrees Kelvin. Kelvin is 0 at absolute zero, the coldest possible temperature, and in addition it uses Celsius for the scale. So, 90 degrees Kelvin is 90 degrees Celsius above absolute zero or 162 degrees Fahrenheit above absolute zero. When Oxygen becomes a liquid, it turns into a pale blue liquid. Oxygen becomes a solid at 54 Kelvin, or −218.8 Celsius, and −361.8 Fahrenheit (at normal pressure). It becomes sky blue ice.

Helium stays a gas until very extreme temperatures. Helium becomes a liquid at 4.2 kelvin or -269 Celsius, or -452.11 Fahrenheit. If the temperature is reduced further by almost half to 2.17 Kelvin, or -270.98 Celsius, or -455.8 Fahrenheit, then Helium suddenly becomes a superfluid, exhibiting macroscopic quantum phenomena. It is so different from normal liquid Helium that it is called Helium II. Its heat conductivity (speed of heat/cold transfer) suddenly increases by one million, and the temperature will become the same throughout the liquid instantly. Even a big pool of liquid helium would almost instantly get the same temperature throughout, and the atoms will start behaving in unison. Regular bubbles can no longer exist (atom sized electron bubbles can exist though).

The liquid starts behaving in bizarre ways. If you place an open metal container of Helium II in a closed room the Helium II would climb out of the container and escape, and a thin film of Helium II would climb the walls and the ceiling. If the floor was made of metal or glazed tile the Helium II would remain on the floor. If the floor was made of unglazed tile or stone, it would leak right through the floor as if the floor was a sieve. If you get a whirlpool or fountain going it will keep going forever without any energy loss. In addition, it would also exhibit many quantum effects that are out of scope for this post.

Superfluid Liquids are Like Magic
Unlike ordinary liquids, helium II will creep along surfaces in order to reach an equal level; after a short while, the levels in the two containers will equalize. The Rollin film also covers the interior of the larger container; if it were not sealed, the helium II would creep out and escape. From : Hampel, Clifford A. (1968). The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. pp. 256–268 (referenced by Wikipedia). Design: Aarchiba; SVG rendering: Júlio Reis, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0&gt;, via Wikimedia Commons

I consider this a super fact because this is a strange, surprising and not a well-known phenomenon. It is a quantum effect that you can observe with your own eyes. It is important because the discovery of superfluidity and its twin effect superconductivity are very important for science and might lead to revolutionizing energy transport in the future. It is no doubt that the phenomenon is real  (true), and it has been documented by numerous experiments and papers. It is described in thousands of textbooks, and I’ve observed the phenomenon with my own eyes (that is next).

Our Experiment with Superfluid Helium

During my first class in Quantum Physics, we performed experiments with liquid Helium. We started out by cooling helium using liquid nitrogen (colder than -196 Celsius or -321 Fahrenheit). Then using vacuum pumps, we kept cooling the Helium until it became liquid. We continued cooling it and we could see lots of bubbles and boiling as we kept going, and then it boiled extra much, and then very quickly the bubbles vanished, and the content of the entire glass container settled down and then stood perfectly still.

As 2.17 Kelvin was reached the viscosity (flow resistance) was instantly lowered with about one million times, and non-microscopic bubbles could no longer exist. The heat conductivity (the speed with which temperature spreads) increased by one million times. It means that the heat of a drop falling in one end of a swimming pool of Helium II would spread throughout the swimming pool in a second. Except, we only had a glass container in which sameness reigned throughout the liquid.

We continued doing experiments such as watching the Helium II climb walls inside the experimental setup, and of course the famous fountain. Insert a little metallic straw and watch a Helium fountain start to flow, by itself. Without any energy or pressure added, it just kept going by itself because no energy was lost either.

I can add that it was more of a demonstration than an experiment that we actively participated in because playing with extreme temperatures high or low is dangerous. If you’ve read this blog for a while you might remember when I put a Cesium-137 sample (800 times more radioactive than Plutonium-239) in my jeans pocket instead of back into its lead brick container and walked around with it a whole day. Or that time when I replaced a fuse for a 380 volt three phase powered laser with my finger because I was curious what would happen if I put my finger in there, and I was shocked, and it hurt. Students shouldn’t play with dangerous stuff.

Below is a one minute and forty four second YouTube video of a Superfluid / Helium II experiment showing an eternal fountain.

Below is a four minute explanation of a superfluid / Helium II experiment.

I can add that Helium II (super cold helium) is not the only superfluid but the easiest one to achieve.

Other Physics Related Superfacts

To see the other Super Facts click here

Electric Charge is not the only type of Fundamental Charge

Super fact 59 : Most people have heard of electrical charges, positive and negative. However, in nature there are also color charges—red, green, and blue—which are analogous to electric charges. In addition, there are anti-red, anti-green, and anti-blue charges.

Esther’s writing prompt: 10th September : Charge

Click here or here  to join in.

As you may know, atoms consist of particles. Electrons surround the nucleus of the atom. The nucleus of the atom is in the middle of the atom and it consists of protons and neutrons. Electrons have a negative charge. Protons have a positive charge. Neutrons do not have an electrical charge. Electrons are so called elementary particles. They are not composed of other particles. Protons and Neutrons, on the other hand, are not elementary particles. They are composite particles consisting of quarks, gluons and quark pairs called mesons.

The picture shows a Hydrogen atom consisting of one proton and one electron, one Carbon atom with six electrons, six protons and six neutrons, an Oxygen atom with eight electrons, eight protons and eight neutrons, and a Nitrogen atom with seven electrons, seven protons and seven neutrons | Electric Charge is not the only type of Fundamental Charge
Four elements with a nucleus and electron shells. The number of electrons, protons, and neutrons is shown. The green particles circling the nucleus are electrons. The red particles in the nucleus (middle) are protons and the blue particles in the nucleus are neutrons. The colors of the particles in this picture have nothing to do with color charges. The four elements are Hydrogen, Carbon, Oxygen, and Nitrogen. There are 118 elements. These elements can combine into millions of different kinds of molecules that make up everything. Asset id: 1555863596 by OSweetNature.

Quarks have electric charges, just like an electron and a positron, which is why a proton has an electric charge, a positive electric charge. However, in addition quarks have something called color charge. Unlike electric charges, which come in two forms, negative and positive, they come in three forms red, green and blue and in anti-red, anti-green, and anti-blue (well six forms actually). I should say that the color charges, red, green and blue, are not real colors. They are just names. Just electric charges are associated with electric forces; color charges are associated with the nuclear strong force. The strong force is even stronger than the electrical force.

If you take an equal amount of positive and negative electric charges you get something that is electrically neutral. If you take an equal amount of red, green and blue you get what is called white, or neutral. If you take an equal amount of red and anti-red you also get white. Any other mix gives you a net color charge.

vector illustration of up and down quarks in proton and neutron on white background. The proton (left) is a red and blue up quark and a green down quark. The neutron is a red and green down quark and a blue up-quark.
The proton and neutron each consist of three quarks. Protons consist of two up quarks and one down quark. Neutrons consist of two down quarks and one up quark. Both protons and neutrons have a net white charge. The yellow squiggly lines are gluons transporting color charge between the quarks. Asset id: 2333679305 by KRPD.

I can add that gluons are elementary particles that in many respects are like photons. Light consists of photons. It is because of the photons that we can see. In addition, the photons transport electrical charge. Photons are massless elementary particles with the intrinsic spin of one, and they belong to a group of elementary particles called Bosons. Gluons transport color charge, and they are massless and have an intrinsic spin of one and belong to the same group of elementary particles called Bosons. Unlike photons, they are stuck inside the nucleus and unlike photons they never get to see the light of day. The pun was intended.

Matter, light, and electrical charges are all part of our daily life. We can touch matter, see light, and we come across electrical charge when we touch something that is charged or when we see lightning. However, we do not come across quarks, gluons, and color charges in our daily life because they are hidden at the center of the atoms. Yet they are fundamental to the existence of matter, of us. We know color charges exist, the existence of color charges is an important fact, and yet it is not a well-known fact and often a big surprise to people. Therefore, I think it is a super fact.

The 118 Elements and the 3,500 Isotopes

There are 118 known elements. Why not 500, or just 4 or 5, like the ancient Greeks believed? Each element is defined by it having a certain number of protons and the same number of electrons if it is to be electrically neutral. The problem with having more than one proton in the nucleus is that protons all carry a positive charge and therefore want to push each other away. Same charges repel and different charges attract. What saves the nucleus from blowing apart are the neutrons and the associated strong nuclear force (protons & neutrons) which is guided by the color charges. The quantum model for electricity is called Quantum electrodynamics or QED. The quantum model for color charges is called Quantum chromodynamics or QCD.

As you add more protons it becomes increasingly more difficult for the nuclear forces (strong and weak) to hold the nucleus together. The positive charge of the protons is pushing too hard. That’s why there are only 118 Elements. Another thing to note is that the number of neutrons does not have to be the same as the number of protons. This means that for each element there are several kinds of so-called isotopes. For example, carbon has six protons and six electrons (if the atom is electrically neutral) but the carbon atom / element can have six neutrons, seven neutrons, or eight neutrons. You call them carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14, where the number represents the number of protons plus the number of neutrons.

The picture shows a Carbon-12 isotope, a Carbon-13 isotope, and a Carbon-14 isotope | Electric Charge is not the only type of Fundamental Charge
Three natural isotopes of Carbon Stock Vector ID: 2063998442 by zizou7
Bohr model representation of the uranium atom, number 92 and symbol U. Conceptual vector illustration of uranium-238 isotope atom, mass number 238 and electron configuration 2, 8, 18, 32, 21, 9, 2.
This is a simplified Bohr model of the Uranium atom. There are 92 little blue balls circling a nucleus in the middle of the atom. Those are electrons. In the nucleus there are 92 protons. Those are the red balls with plus signs. In addition, there is a yellowish smudge around the protons in the nucleus. Those are the neutrons. Depending on the isotope, there are 143 neutrons for U-235, 146 neutrons for U-238 and 142 neutrons for U-234. Shutterstock asset id: 1999370450 by Patricia F. Carvalho

It is the electrons that determine the chemical properties of an element, and therefore isotopes with a different amount of neutrons are chemically identical. However, they are different with respect to properties that relate to he nucleus, such as radioactivity/stability, and of course weight. Also, when atoms combine into molecules their chemical properties change drastically, but again that is due to the rearrangement of the electrons. There are around 3,500 known isotopes, most of them radioactive.

What is a Quark?

To learn more about Protons, Neutrons, Quarks, Gluons, Color Charges, and Quantum Chromodynamics you can watch this 10 minute video below.

Other Physics Related Superfacts

To see the other Super Facts click here

Science Books for Babies

I think that one of the most interesting series science books for beginners that I’ve come across is the Baby University series. I bought it for our soon to be born first grandchild Jack, but I couldn’t help but go through them myself. It is a great series for those who hope to put their one-year-old toddlers in a PhD program. But seriously, these books explain science concepts as simply as it is possible to do. The books may still be a little bit tough for babies, but I think 2–3-year-olds might get something out of them. The point of the books is not to make young children understand complex scientific concepts but to introduce the vocabulary and build curiosity.

Below I am presenting five books in the series, General Relativity for Babies, Electromagnetism for Babies, Artificial Intelligence for Babies, Quantum Physics for Babies, and Organic Chemistry for Babies. I am providing my review for the book and a link to my review as well as the book and a photo of the front cover.

General Relativity for Babies

The front cover of General Relativity for Babies is light blue and features the title, author (Chris Ferrie) and a green illustration of warped space | Science Books for Babies
Front cover of General relativity for Babies.

This is the Amazon link for General Relativity for Babies.

My Review for General Relativity for Babies

General Relativity as Simplified as Possible

We bought this board book for our not yet born grandson. This book simplifies the General Theory of Relativity as far as you possibly can. It uses simple language and colorful illustrations to give the reader an idea of what is going on. Different sized masses are different sized balls, space-time curvature is illustrated using a distorted grid, and objects orbiting larger masses, such as a star, are shown as small balls having their paths curved by a warped grid. There are simple explanations for what a black hole is and what gravity waves are.

A baby would not understand this book but maybe someone who is 3-4 years old would. But your expectations need to be realistic. It should also be noted that even if you understand the book, the explanations are too simplistic for you to really understand General Relativity, but the explanations are not so simple that they are wrong. The book will just give you an idea of what is going on. However, I was impressed by the fact that the author and illustrator were able to present such an abstract theory in a way that makes it possible for a child to at least have a clue. I think that the most important aspect of the book is not whether the child understands General Relativity but the interest in science that it may evoke.

Electromagnetism for Babies

The front cover of Electromagnetism for Babies is light green and features the title, author (Chris Ferrie) and a light blue illustration of a binky surrounded by a field.
Front cover of Electromagnetism for Babies.

This is the Amazon link for Electromagnetism for Babies.

My Review for Electromagnetism for Babies

Electromagnetism Simplified for Young Children

We bought this short and colorfully illustrated board book for our not yet born grandson. I don’t think a baby will understand it but maybe when he is 2-3 years old. The book explains in simple terms and with colorful simple illustrations the basic concepts of charges, and attraction between negative and positive charges, and repulsion between two positive balls/charges and two negative balls. It explains about electrical and magnetic fields, and the fact that charges rotate around magnets. I believe this book can spur a child’s interest in science and engineering.

Artificial Intelligence for babies

The front cover of Artificial Intelligence for babies is black and features the title, author (Chris Ferrie) and an illustration of a binky surrounded by an electronic network | Science Books for Babies
Front cover of Artificial Intelligence for babies.

This is the Amazon link for Artificial Intelligence for babies.

My Review for Artificial Intelligence for babies

Artificial Intelligence for Small Children

We bought this board book for our not yet born grandson. He will not be able to understand it until he is at least one years old, but that is OK. The book explains the difference between a dog, a live thing, and a computer. It does this in very simple terms that I believe a young child could understand. According to the book, a computer can do some things that are impressive, such as complex calculations, and you can teach it certain skills, but it is not adaptable like a dog. I think that is about what you can make a very young child understand. Naturally, there are no neural networks or AI algorithms in the book. However, I think it sells artificial intelligence short, since artificial intelligence is becoming increasingly adaptable.

Quantum Physics for babies

The front cover of Quantum Physics for babies is yellow and features the title, author (Chris Ferrie) and an illustration of a simplified Bohr Model of the Atom with a binky as a nucleus.
Front cover of Quantum Physics for babies.

This is the Amazon link for Quantum Physics for babies.

My Review for Quantum Physics for babies

Quantum Physics for Young Children and Adults who Detested Physics Class

We bought this board book for our not yet born grandson. We may need to wait until he is 2-3 years old before it makes sense to read it to him. In the meantime, it is also a good book for adults without a solid science education. The book talks about colorful balls with energy and presents a simplified version of the Bohr model of the atom. There are blue balls called electrons and red balls called protons in the middle (the nucleus). The electrons travel in circular orbits around the middle. Light can change the energy of electrons causing them to jump between the orbits.

My daughter made the comment that a baby is only going to understand that an electron is a blue ball and a proton is a red ball, which isn’t a correct description of electrons and protons. Protons and electrons don’t have specific colors, not to mention that a simplified Bohr model for the atom is quite different from the more realistic Schrödinger’s model of the atom with quantum waves and probabilistic electron clouds. However, I am still very impressed by how simple the author and the illustrator succeeded in making this abstract topic. It is a good start for budding physicists.

Organic Chemistry for babies

The front cover of Organic Chemistry for babies is red and features the title, author (Chris Ferrie and Cara Florance) and an illustration of a benzene ring made from binkies | Science Books for Babies
Front cover of Organic Chemistry for babies.

This is the Amazon link for Organic Chemistry for babies.

My Review for Organic Chemistry for babies

Your First Book on Organic Chemistry

We bought this board book for our not yet born grandson. We will read it to him when he is 1-3 years old. Right now, we can read it. This book simplifies Organic as far as you possibly can. It uses simple language and colorful illustrations to give the reader an idea of what organic chemistry is. Basically, atoms are balls of different kinds. Atoms make up everything. Atoms can stick to each other, and they can make different shapes. The balls we call carbon (in black) can stick to small white balls called hydrogen and other balls called oxygen. We call those organic molecules, and they make up plants, food, and medicines. I think this is simple enough for a 1–3-year-old to understand, but not a baby. In my opinion, a better name for this series would have been “for Big Boys or Girls” rather than babies, because young children don’t like being called babies.

To watch a woman read Quantum Physics for Babies. Click on the YouTube video below.

To see the Super Facts click here